Lighthouses (Especially With Regard To The Civil War)

Joshism

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First some background on the Lighthouse Service in the United States.

The first session of the Constitutional Congress passed an act creating the US Light House Establishment (USLHE) within the Department of the Treasury. The USLHE was responsible for all navigational aids in the United States - their establishment, operation, and maintenance. (Besides lighthouses this would come to include lightships, buoys, range lights, small non-lighthouse beacons, post lights, unlighted daybeacons, fog signals, and radio beacons). During colonial times these had been few in number and created solely by local interests. In 1820, the USLHE came under the administration of the Fifth Auditor, Stephen Pleasonton. He had famously saved the Declaration of Independence from being burned by the the British in 1814. Pleasonton badly ran the USLHE for several decades (long story). In 1852, Congress placed the USLHE under a new Lighthouse Board consisting of Army and Navy officers and a few civilian experts.

Lighthouses between 1789 and the late 1840s were contracted to the lowest bidder amongst civilian engineers. The result was many inadequate and poorly built lighthouses, few of which survive today. In the late 1840s, Army engineers started being assigned to design lighthouses and supervise their construction. In 1852, as part of the same legislation creating the Lighthouse Board, the entire coast of the US (along with the Mississippi River was divided into numbered Districts. Each District had an Engineer who was normally an Army officer (West Point being the best source of engineers at the time) and an Inspector who was a Navy officer. Engineers were responsible for construction and repairs. Inspectors made quarterly inspections of all light stations and handled personnel matters, although lighthouse keepers were nominated by the local Collector of Customs until the 1880s. Given the small size of the antebellum US military it should come as no surprise that many future big names of the American Civil War were Engineers or Inspectors during the 1850s.

Side note: several notable naval officers of the Spanish-American War were also involved with the USLHE in some capacity - namely George Dewey, Winfield Scott Schley, and Robley Evans.

Civil Service Reform began applying to lighthouse keepers in 1896. In 1903, the Lighthouse Service moved to the new Department of Commerce. In 1910, the Lighthouse Service was reorganized: Lighthouse Board and the Engineer/Inspector system was phased out, and Districts were reorganized. The new Bureau of Lighthouses had the same responsibilities as the old Lighthouse Establishment. It was an entirely civilian organization run by a Commissioner of Lighthouses who reported directly to the Secretary of Commerce. Each District had an Inspector (renamed Superintendent in 1918), with 1-2 chief assistants, who ran the districts. Engineering was all done by civil engineers, although by this point there was very little new lighthouse construction (although many other smaller automated aids to navigation).

The name "Lighthouse Service" was never formally used, although it became a very common informal name starting in the 1890s, including use of the acronym "USLHS" instead of "USLHE", especially after 1939.

If you really love maritime matters, in addition to lightships there were also many lighthouse tenders of various sizes that supplied lighthouses (especially offshore locations) and lightships; placed and maintained buoys and minor navigational aids; transported Engineers, Inspectors, Superintendents, lampists, machinists, and work crews to perform their duties.

In 1939, the Lighthouse Service merged with the Coast Guard. The Coast Guard had itself been formed in 1915 by the merger of the US Life Saving Service (a civilian rescue organization in the Treasury Department formed in the 1870s) and the Revenue Cutter Service (a law enforcement organization primarily concerned with customs enforcement) formed in 1789. The Coast Guard handled things very differently and by the 1950s pretty much all keepers were enlisted military personnel. In the 1960s, the Coast Guard accelerated the process of automating lighthouses and phasing out the remaining lightships. It introduced regional Aids to Navigation Teams (ANT) that handled all maritime navigational aids, other than Loran (a navigational network of special radio stations, using the same basic principles that GPS uses today). By the 1990s, every lighthouse in the United States had been automated. Many lighthouses have been transferred to national parks, state parks, local municipal governments (who often turn to nonprofits), or direct ownership by nonprofit organizations. This process was codified in 2000 under the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act.

Fun fact: at the peak of the lighthouse service (ca. 1910) there were about 1000 light stations in the United States. There are something like 600 surviving today, some of them abandoned and in deteriorating shape. Unlike popular subjects like Gettysburg, Lincoln, or D-Day lighthouses are a woefully understudied subject, especially the history of the individual stations. Until proper research in the National Archives (and sadly some records were destroyed in the infamous 1921 Commerce Department fire), what is "know" about any given lighthouse is often times riddled with inaccuracies.

In this thread I will post about the various notable military officers who served in the American Civil War and also did work related to lighthouses, particularly during the 1850s. I will also be happy to answer any burning questions you might have about lighthouses.
 

Joshism

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If you want an introduction to lighthouses in book form, it's hard to top Eric Jay Dolin's Brilliant Beacons: A History of the American Lighthouse.

I also recommend A Short Bright Flash: Augustin Fresnel and the Birth of the Modern Lighthouse by Theresa Levitt. Not only was there about a hundred years where every lighthouse in the world used a Fresnel lens, the headlights in my car and the overhead light in my bathroom (and the light on my dock, if I had a dock) use principles Fresnel discovered. (And it's pronounced fray-nel because he was French.)

Officially, May 1 (less pandemic interruptions) will be the release date of When the Southern Lights Went Dark: The Lighthouse Establishment During the Civil War by Mary Louise Clifford and Candace Clifford. Excellent research can be expected based on the authors.
 

Joshism

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George G. Meade's first lighthouse project was to assist Hartman Bache with the Brandywine Shoal Lighthouse in Delaware Bay. It was one of the first "skeletal" screwpile lighthouses built in the US. It was later replace by a "caisson" lighthouse more resistant to ice flows.

Meade was next assigned to lighthouse work in the Florida Keys in 1852. He was tasked with completing the Carysfort Reef Lighthouse on the Florida Reef off Key Largo, now the oldest surviving iron pile lighthouse in the entire world. Meade is often incorrectly given credit for designing the lighthouse, but that work was actually done by other officers who preceded him on the project (his immediate predecessor got sick and died).

From 1853 to 1856, Meade was Engineer of the 4th (New Jersey coast and Delaware Bay) and 7th (southern half of Florida) Lighthouse Districts.

In Florida, Meade is responsible for the location and design of the little Cedar Keys Lighthouse on the Florida Gulf Coast, the Northwest Passage Lighthouse near Key West, and the Sombrero Key Lighthouse off Marathon. he also took over the Sand Key Lighthouse near Key West, including making alterations to the design and successfully testing a new oil lamp of his own design (Meade Hydraulic Lamp, an improved version of an older lamp design). He designed and possibly supervised the extension of and new lantern for the Cape Florida Lighthouse (Key Biscayne near Miami). He designed an unlighted beacon for Rebecca Shoal (between Key West and the Dry Tortugas) but several attempts to construct it were foiled by the rough seas and bad weather. An unlighted beacon would not be successfully built there until after the Civil War and the Rebecca Shoal Lighthouse (which Meade had nothing to do with) was not built until the 1880s. He selected the location for and created the original design of the Jupiter Inlet Lighthouse (a little north of Palm Beach), but the final design was modified by his successor.

Farther north, Meade was partly responsible for three lighthouses: Absecon, Barnegat, and Cape May. He actually tweaked the design for Absecon from what his predecessor (Hartman Bache) had designed. Meade's final design was copied for Barnegat and Cape Bay, but tweaked by his successor. Meade also designed the improvements for Cape Henlopen Lighthouse at the mouth of Delaware Bay. Alas, the colonial era lighthuse fell into the bay in the 1920s due to the erosion of the bluff it stood on.

For a year (1855-1856), Meade was also Engineer for the 5th Lighthouse District (Chesepeake Bay and North Carolina), although I haven't seen any evidence he designed any lighthouses there.

Meade would have stayed in his position longer, but the Third Seminole War interrupted some of the Florida projects so the Army sent him to a survey project (NOT lighthouse work) in the Great Lakes. He was still there when the Civil War broke out. Meade was technically the 11th Lighthouse District Engineer in July and August 1861 before coming east to assume combat command.
 

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Meade's successor as Engineer of the 4th, 5th, and 7th Districts was William Franklin Raynolds, serving 1856-1859. Like Meade, he was a 1st Lieutenant in the Army Topographic Corps of Engineers. Raynolds graduated West Point in 1843; he was 5th in his class. Top of that class? William B. Franklin, the Civil War general of whom more will he heard later in this thread.

Raynolds tweaked and completed Barnegat, Cape May, and Jupiter Inlet; completed Sombrero Key without modifications; designed and built Egmont Key (Tampa Bay, FL). He also was involved with a few small Chesepeake Bay lighthouses (I'd have to dig out a short article I once wrote about him).

In 1859, now Capt. Raynolds led a somewhat famous survey expedition of the Yellowstone River.

Raynolds did not achieve any Civil War fame, but he did serve. From July 1861 to Oct 1861 he ewas Chief Topographic Engineer of the Department of Virginia, then held the same position in the Department of West Virginia / Mountain Department until June 1862. (I assume that means he was on Fremont's staff?) He then served as Chief Engineer of the Middle Department / VIII Corps until April 1864. Cullum's Register states he was in "charge of the defenses of Harpers Ferry" during the Gettysburg Campaign.

In April 1864, he was sent to the Great Lakes where he held the positions of Superintending Engineer of Survey of North and Northwest Lakes, and also Engineer of the 10th and 11th Lighthouse Districts until 1870. At the end of the war he held the permanent rank of Major, Corps of Engineers, and the brevet rank of Brigadier General.

Among his later assignments were temporary Engineer of the 8th Lighthouse District (Gulf Coast) in 1873 and 4th Lighthouse District Engineer from 1873 until 1884. Raynolds retired in 1884 with the permanent rank of Colonel after more than 40 years of continuous service to the Army Corps of Engineers.
 

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The Lighthouse Board included a Chairman, an Engineering Secretary, and a Naval Secretary.

The Engineering Secretaries from 1856 to 1861: John G. Parke, William B. Franklin, William F. "Baldy" Smith. All future Union Major Generals and corps commanders. And from 1865-1870? Orlando M. Poe, Sherman's former engineer.

The Naval Secretary from late 1858 until he resigned his commission in early 1861? Raphael Semmes. From early 1857 until he joined the Lighthouse Board, Semmes was Inspector of the 8th Lighthouse District (at the time - Florida Panhandle, Alabama, and Mississippi).
 

jgoodguy

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Interesting, a welcome relief from the virus. Thanks.
 

Joshism

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Lets throw in one more this evening.

William Buel Franklin graduated West Point at the top of the Class of 1843. His service in the Topographic Corps until the Civil War was as follows: Great Lakes survey; Kearny's South Pass expedition; Topographical Bureau in Washington, DC; survey of Ossabaw Sound, GA; Gen. Wool in the Mexican War including the Battle of Buena Vista (which earned a brevet to 1st Lt); West Point assistant professor; survey of Roanoke Inlet, NC; in charge of harbor improvements at Oswego, NY; Superintending Engineer of the extensions of the Capitol and Treasury Buildings.

Before and simultaneous to his engineering work on the Washington federal buildings, Franklin held the following positions in the Lighthouse Service:
1st District (Maine): Engineer, 1852-1860, and Inspector, 1852-1856.
2nd District (New Hampshire & Massachusetts): Engineer, 1856-1860
Lighthouse Board: Engineer Secretary, 1857-1859

I am not very familiar with New England lighthouses, but he would have almost certainly been responsible for the location and design of every lighthouse built in his districts during his time as Engineer. Most notable were probably the twin lighthouses at Cape Ann aka Thatcher's Island, Massachusetts. Elements of these lighthouses appear to have influenced the postwar design of the famous Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, which was itself the basis for a standardized design used for numerous brick and iron lighthouses in the 1870s.

As Engineer Secretary, Franklin apparently also designed the brick-lined iron lighthouse at Cape Canaveral, Florida (not built until after the war). He also created a standardized design for prefabricated square wooden cottage-style lighthouses on screwpiles. His design, and some slight postwar variations of it, was used for upwards of 40 lighthouses. These small lighthouses were for use in rivers, bays, and other shallow areas with sandy or muddy bottoms - particularly Chesapeake Bay and the North Carolina sounds.

Also as Engineer Secretary, logic and circumstance indicates Franklin was likely behind the creation of the antebellum Standard Brick Lighthouse Plan. Variations of this plan were used for at least a half dozen lighthouses in the southeast designed between 1857 and 1860. The Pensacola Lighthouse would be the best known example of this design.

William Franklin will not make anyone's list of top generals of the American Civil War, but if the US Lighthouse Society ever creates a Hall of Fame I think he will be in it.
 

Joshism

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Besides names I have already mentioned in this thread so far, here's a list of men who served in some capacity with the Lighthouse Service (Engineer, Inspector, and/or on a specific lighthouse project) before or after the American Civil War and who were generals, warship captains, or otherwise officers of some distinction during the war itself. By no means a complete list.

Union Army
Barton Alexander (commanded the AOTP Engineering Brigade under McClellan; later Chief Engineer of the Washington Defenses)
Orville Babcock
John G. Barnard
George W. Cullum
James C. Duane, Chief Engineer of the AOTP
Jeffrey F. Gilmer
Peter C. Hains, XIII Corps Chief Engineer at Vicksburg
Henry W. Halleck
John Newton
John Pope
William S. Rosecrans
James H. Simpson (Colonel, 4th NJ Infantry - wounded and captured at Gaines Mill)
Godfrey Weitzel
Amiel W. Whipple
Robert S. Williamson (Chief Topographic Engineer of Dept of NC & AOTP Chief Topographical Engineer)
Daniel P. Woodbury
Horatio G. Wright

Union Navy
George H. Preble
Alexander M. Pennock

Confederate Army
P.G.T. Beauregard
William H. Chase (commanded Florida militia at Pensacola before Bragg's arrival)
Daniel Leadbetter
Walter H. Steven, Chief Engineer of the ANV & Richmond defensive works engineer
W.H.C. Whiting

Confederate Navy
Thomas T. Hunter

Honorable Mentions
Rene Edward De Russy: designed and commanded Pacific fortifications during the Civil War. His brother, Louis Gustave De Russy, was a Confederate engineer and namesake of Fort De Russy.
Silas Casey III: son of the author of Casey's Infantry Tactics; low-ranking naval officer during the war, eventually commander of the Pacific Fleet.
Thomas Lincoln Casey, Jr: son of a Union Army officer and grandson of the author of Casey's Infantry Tactics
John M. Wilson: won a Medal of Honor at Malvern Hill before transferring to the Corps of Engineers
 

Joshism

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I'm a guest columnist for the US Lighthouse Society blog. Most of my posts so far have been about 1850s lighthouse engineers who went on to be Civil War generals:
George Meade - https://news.uslhs.org/2020/07/15/bright-ideas-2-george-meade/
William Raynolds - https://news.uslhs.org/2020/08/06/bright-ideas-3-william-raynolds/
William Franklin - https://news.uslhs.org/2020/08/20/bright-ideas-4-william-franklin/
Daniel Woodbury - https://news.uslhs.org/2020/09/03/bright-ideas-5-daniel-woodbury-and-standard-lighthouse-design/
 

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No future Rebs were in charge of building lighthouses?

If so, that is curious.
 

Joshism

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No future Rebs were in charge of building lighthouses?

If so, that is curious.
My next blog post will include some Confederates - W.H.C. Whiting and Daniel Ledbetter.

Raphael Semmes was also involved with the antebellum Lighthouse Board.

You do raise an interesting point: were Army engineer officers disproportionately loyal to the Union, compared to their Infantry, Artillery, and Quartermaster counterparts?

IIRC, the book that came out in the last few years about engineers in the war ("Engineering Victory"?) argues in part that a shortage of experienced military engineers hurt the Confederacy. This subject probably warrants its own thread.
 

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Lets throw in one more this evening.
What about this Lighthouse...


In July 1851, Lt. David D. Porter, USN, reported as follows:
"Hatteras light, the most important on our coast is, without doubt, the worst light in the world. Cape Hatteras is the point made by all vessels going to the south, and also coming from that direction; the current of the Gulf Stream runs so close to the outer point of the shoals that vessels double as close round the breakers as possible, to avoid its influence. The only guide they have is the light, to tell them when up with the shoals; but I have always had so little confidence in it, that I have been guided by the lead, without the use of which no vessel should pass Hatteras. The first nine trips I made I never saw Hatteras light at all, though frequently passing in sight of the breakers, and when I did see it, I could not tell it from a steamer's light, excepting that the steamer's lights are much brighter. It has improved much latterly but is still a wretched light. It is all-important that Hatteras should be provided with a revolving light of great intensity, and that the light is raised 15 feet (4.6 m) higher than at present. Twenty-four steamship's lights, of great brilliancy, pass this point in one month, nearly at the rate of one every night (they all pass at night) and it can be seen how easily a vessel may be deceived by taking a steamer's light for a light onshore."
 

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Lets start with the Lighthouse Board from their formation in 1852 until the war started in 1861. The Board had three key positions: Chairman, Engineer Secretary, and Naval Secretary.

William Shubrick was Chairman 1852-1871, except for a few months in 1859 when Lawrence Kearny held the position. Both were in their 70s when the war broke out and were retired due to age, though Shubrick retained his position as Chairman as a civilian and was even promoted to Rear Admiral post-retirement. Both men were career Navy officers. Shubrick remained loyal to the Union despite being born in SC. Kearny was from NJ (and I assume must be related somehow to Stephen and Philip Kearny).

Naval Secretaries were Thorton Jenkins (1852-1858) and Raphael Semmes (1858-1861). Jenkins was born (and I assume raised) in Virginia, but had been in the Navy since 1828 and stayed loyal to the Union. He served in the Gulf under Farragut. Semmes resigned to join the Confederacy and of course became their most famous naval officer.

Engineer Secretaries 1852-1861 were Edmund Hardcastle, John G. Parke, William B. Franklin, and William F. Smith. All four men were career Army Engineers who graduated in the Top 5 of their classes at Weste Point. Parke, Franklin, and Smith all went on to be Union generals of various ability levels. Hardcastle retired prior to the war to pursue a civilian career (as was not uncommon), but interestingly did not rejoin the Army during the Civil War despite still being young enough (he was part of the famous Class of 1846) and seemingly healthy enough (he lived to 1899). Hardcastle was a native of Maryland and spend his post-Army life there as well. He was also a delegate to the Charleston and Baltimore Democratic Conventions in 1860. I think that suggests he may have had mixed feelings about the war.
 

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I light to add another outerbank lighthouse... near Nags Head...


  • 1861 – In the fall of 1861, Confederate troops stacked explosives inside the tower and blew it apart.
 

Joshism

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On to the District Engineers from 1852-1861 who were always Army engineers. I wont bother with details on well-known individuals.

1st District: William Franklin, Charles N. Turnbull
Turnbull born in DC. 6th in the West Point Class of 1856. Remained in the Army through the war, holding various staff engineering positions through the Civil War, including for the Army of the Potomac during the Overland Campaign. He spent the war as a Captain and was made a Brevet Colonel in 1865 and never held a traditional combat command.

2nd District: Cornelius A. Ogden, William Franklin, Charles Turnbull
Ogden was born in NJ, 3rd in the West Point Class of 1819. Died in 1856.

3rd District
: William Rosecrans, Richard Delafield, William D. Fraser, George Dutton, James C. Duane, James St. Clair Morton
(I'm skipping two Navy officers who were the District Inspectors serving as acting District Engineers and the District's Chief Clerk serving in a similiar temporary capacity. Also an unusual amount of turnover here with Rosecrans, Delafield, and Fraser serving less than a year each.)

Delafield: New Yorker, 1st in the Class of 1819. Notable roles include head of the commission to study the Crimean War (also including McClellan) and superintendent of West Point (1856-1861). He remained in the US Army through the Civil War, but being in his 60s was nowhere near combat. He commanded the defenses of New York Harbor until becoming Chief of Engineers in 1864.

Fraser: also a New Yorker, 1st in the Class of 1834. District Engineer while also superintending other projects in New York Harbor. Died in 1856 while superintending work on Fort Taylor in Key West.

Dutton: Connecticut, 1st in Class of 1822. In charge of building Goat Island Lighthouse, Newport, RI while also superintending work on nearby Fort Adams then District Engineer while superintending other projects in the vicinity of New York City. Died in 1857.

Duane: New York, 3rd in the Class of 1848. Not only 3rd District Engineer 1856-1858, but also 1878-1886, and 1st District Engineer 1868-1879 and 2nd District Engineer 1870-1881. Best known as Chief Engineer of the Army of the Potomac 1863-1865. Concluded his 40 year Army career as Chief of Engineers 1886-1888. Duane seems like someone who should have a full-length biography written about him.

Morton: Pennsylvania, 2nd in the Class of 1851. Chief Engineer of the Army of the Ohio (1862). Commander, Pioneer Brigade, Army of the Cumberland (1862-1863). Wounded at Chickamauga while apparently part of Rosecran's staff. Assistant to the Chief Engineer of the US Army (early 1864). Chief Engineer of the IX Corps during the Overland Campaign until his death while leading at attack on Petersburg on June 17, 1864.
 

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4th District: Hartman Bache, George Meade, William Raynolds, William Franklin, Hartman Bache
Bache was the great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin and brother-in-law of Meade. He also had several other prominent relatives in government service, most notably Alexander Dallas Bache, Superintendent of the US Coast Survey (1843-1867). Hartman Bache was a career Army Engineer starting in 1818, despite a poor ranking at West Point. Very involved with lighthouses in the 1840s and 1850s, especially the use of screwpiles. Being in his 60s during the war he remained in non-combat roles including being the last Chief of the Topographic Corps of Engineers before it was merged back into the Corps of Engineers.

5th District: Hartman Bache, George Meade, William Raynolds, Lorenzo Sitgreaves, Hartman Bache, John N. Macomb

Sitgreaves: Pennsylvania, 25th in the Class of 1832. Artillery officer, resigned his commission to become a civil engineer, recommissioned when the Corps of Topographic Engineers formed (similiar to Meade's early career). Career Army engineer officer from 1838 onward. Married the daughter of General Thomas S. Jesup. He was extended sick leave when the war started. Though he returned to active duty, he served in relatively minor non-combat administrative and engineering positions before resigning due to his health in 1866.

Macomb: New York, 14th in the Class of 1832. Artillery officer who transferred to the new Corps of Topographic Engineers in 1838. Career engineer officer. A staff officer in Virginia early in the war, but after Pope's campaign was sent off to New England for engineering projects.

6th District
: Daniel P. Woodbury, W.H.C. Whiting
Woodbury is covered in my latest USLHS column. Whiting will be covered in the next one. Woodbury stayed Union, Whiting went Confederate.

7th District: Meade, Raynolds, Bache

8th District
: Daniel Leadbetter, George H. Derby
Both will be covered in my next USLHS column.

9th District: Walter H. Stevens
Born in western New York. 4th in the Class of 1848. He was assigned primarily to engineering projects on the Gulf Coast, married the sister of Louis Hebert (later a Confederate general), and "went native" ala John C. Pemberton. Resigned from the US Army when Texas seceded; he was working on the defenses of Galveston at the time. Joined the Confederate Army and was a staff officer (Major) at First Bull Run and Seven Pines. He was assigned to strength the defenses of Richmond from June 1862 to February 1864. He became Lee's Chief Engineer for the ANV during the Overland Campaign and some of his work is covered in part by Keith Bohannon essay in Cold Harbor to the Crater: The End of the Overland Campaign (ed. Gallagher & Janney). He surrendered at Appomattox. After the war he became superintended of Maximilian's Mexican Imperial Railroad, but died of yellow fever in 1867.
 
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